Swiss Democracy

Possible Solutions to Conflict in Multicultural Societies

Wolf Linder
Professor, Institute for Political Science
University of Bern

1994

Contents

List of Tables ix

List of Figures x

List of Boxes xi

Foreword by Jurg Steiner xii

Introduction xiv

1. Building a Multicultural Society by Political Integration 1
   • 1.1 Introduction 1
   • 1.2 The origins of modern Switzerland 5
   • 1.3 Turning poor odds to good, or factors that made Swiss nation-building a success 8
     • 1.3.1 Economy 13
     • 1.3.2 Pressure from the outside 13
     • 1.3.3 Democracy and social values 15
     • 1.3.4 The combining of democracy with federalism 16
   • 1.4 Religious and ethnic minorities: from coexistence to pluralism 18
     • 1.4.1 Political Catholicism: from segmentation to integration 18
     • 1.4.2 Multilingualism: understandings and misunderstandings 22
     • 1.4.3 The Jura - the exception to integration 25
   • 1.5 The challenges of socioeconomic inequality 27
     • 1.5.1 A working class without a homeland 27
     • 1.5.2 From class struggle to economic partnership 29
   • 1.6 Proportional representation: the universal key to power-sharing 31
   • 1.7 The limits of Swiss pluralism - new challenges for integration 33
   • 1.8 Conclusion 36
2. Federalism 38
   • 2.1 Institutions 38
     2.1.1 The Swiss interpretation of federalism 38 2.1.2 The division of powers between the federation and the cantons 40 2.1.3 Non-centralisation - not decentralisation 40 2.1.4 Relations between the federation and the cantons 43
   • 2.2 Federalist elements in the decision-making process 44
     • 2.2.1 A bicameral legislature 44
       • 2.2.1.1 Election to the National Council and the Council of States 44
       • 2.2.1.2 Bicameral Lawmaking 46
     • 2.2.2 The people's and the cantons' vote 48
     • 2.2.3 The importance of local government 49
     • 2.2.4 Citizens' self-administration 52
   • 2.3 Federalism at work 54
     • 2.3.1 Cooperative federalism: how federal tasks are implemented by cantons and communes 54
     • 2.3.2 How a deadlock over a federal programme allows experiments: the energy-saving policies of the cantons 56
     • 2.3.3 How federalism copes with inequalities: the example of Swiss primary schools 60
     • 2.3.4 Swiss federalism means regional solidarity, not competition 61
     • 2.3.5 Dealing with the separatist issue: the dolorous birth of a new canton 65
   • 2.4 The limits of Swiss federalism 68
     • 2.4.1 Limits of implementation: why some foreigners can buy real estate in Switzerland and others can not 68
     • 2.4.2 The weakness of federal authorities, or how a canton can deny human rights to its citizens 69
   • 2.5 Challenges 73
     • 2.5.1 Federalism vs democracy: why one citizen from Uri outweighs 34 citizens from Zurich, or to what extent is federalism compatible with democracy? 73
     • 2.5.2 Urban regions - the lost dimension in Swiss federalism 77
     • 2.5.3 Internationalisation and decentralisation - can they go together? 79
3. Direct Democracy and Power-Sharing 84
   • 3.1 Introduction: The vote to abolish the Swiss Army 84
   • 3.2 Institutions and the historical meaning of direct democracy 85
     • 3.2.1 Obligatory and optional referenda 85
     • 3.2.2 The popular initiative 87
     • 3.2.3 Direct and semidirect democracy: historical meanings and their development 88
   • 3.3 Participation in direct democracy 91
     • 3.3.1 The deciding majority, or who are the people? 91
     • 3.3.2 Regular voters, occasional participants and abstentionists 93
   • 3.4 A closer look at the referendum and the initiative 97
     • 3.4.1 The issues 97
     • 3.4.2 Direct democracy's role in political agenda-setting 97
     • 3.4.3 The use of referenda and initiatives 99
     • 3.4.4 'Braking' referenda and 'innovating' initiatives - two different devices of direct democracy 100
       • 3.4.4.1 The braking effect of the referendum 101
       • 3.4.4.2 The innovating effect of the popular initiative 104
   • 3.5 Understanding the people's vote 105
     • 3.5.1 An example of a vote: should there be tougher restrictions on refugees seeking asylum in Switzerland? 106
     • 3.5.2 Shaping opinions in a voting compaign: the actors 108
     • 3.5.3 Factors that influence voters' behaviour: knowledge, trust and propaganda 111
     • 3.5.4 Can money and propaganda buy votes? 112
     • 3.5.5 Models of voter behaviour 114
       • 3.5.5.1 The socio-political values approach 114
       • 3.5.5.2 The economic model of rational choice 116
       • 3.5.5.3 A further reflection 117
   • 3.6 Power-sharing by direct democracy, or how the referendum has changed the political system 118
     • 3.6.1 The referendum as a power-sharing device 118
       • 3.6.1.1 Impacts on the composition of the government 118
       • 3.6.1.2 Impacts on the legislative process 119
     • 3.6.2 The referendum as an instrument of vested interests 126
       • 3.6.2.1 The negotiating actors and their influence 126
       • 3.6.2.2 The output of negotiated legislation 128
   • 3.7 Conclusions 130
     • 3.7.1 Direct democracy - an exceptional system 130
     • 3.7.2 Direct democracy - a different political culture 134
     • 3.7.3 Direct democracy - between integration and innovation 135
4. Comparative Perspectives 138
   • 4.1 Direct democracy 138
     • 4.1.1 Experiences of direct democracy compared 138
     • 4.1.2 The practice of direct democracy in US states and Switzerland: similarities and differences 141
     • 4.1.3 The theory of direct democracy: between the ideal and the reality 146
       • 4.1.3.1 Enhancing participation 146
       • 4.1.3.2 Direct vs representative democracy 147
       • 4.1.3.3 'Sensible democracy'- a third model? 148
       • 4.1.3.4 Perspectives 152
   • 4.2 Federalism 153
     • 4.2.1 The essentials of federalist institutions 153
     • 4.2.2 Federalism: a structure, a process and a political culture 155
     • 4.2.3 Modern meanings of federalism 156
       • 4.2.3.1 Cultural autonomy and difference 156
       • 4.2.3.2 Federalism and democracy 159
       • 4.2.3.3 The territorial state - at once too large and too small 160
       • 4.2.3.4 The question of secession 162
     • 4.2.4 Non-territorial federalism 164
   • 4.3 Power-sharing and consociational democracy 166
     • 4.3.1 Majoritarian and consensus democracy: a comparison 166
     • 4.3.2 Democratic power-sharing: a key to resolving conflicts in multicultural societies 168
     • 4.3.3 The key to successful power-sharing: developing a democracy based on the roots of one's own culture 173
   • 4.4 Epilogue: Switzerland's future after the popular vote on the European Economic Area 174

Notes and References 177

Bibliography 190

Index 202